This is a list of desert food problems and solutions by the state.
Video Food deserts by country
Africa
The African food wilderness is complex due to accelerated urbanization, the ways in which individuals obtain food through formal and informal food economy markets, household family dynamics, and African social, economic and economic impacts. African desert food has been defined as "poor, often informal, urban environments characterized by high food insecurity and low diet diversity, with some markets and markets and non-market food sources but household access varies for food."
The definition of a pasture is often related to the distance between the occupants and the nearest supermarket. In Western countries, supermarkets dominate traders and vendors but the method of sourcing food in Africa is reversed. Certain areas have an informal economy where traders and vendors are available within the area they occupy and other local areas. Urban agriculture also plays a major role in Africa because pastoralism is widely practiced - populations rearing their own animals and growing their own food creates an informal rural-urban food diversion system. These practices vary across Africa but do not improve food security and limit the resources of society to create food deserts. Low-income residents are still more lean to food sources in these ways, but supermarket growth in urban and rural areas cuts food source methods and worsens food security.
Thus, households in the food of the same desert food sources are different. Most environments have a mixture of different levels of income. Those with higher incomes have better access to transportation and are more likely to shop at the nearest grocery store. Low-income households tend to keep buying food from local vendors with more limited hours of operation or through grazing. The Africa Urban Security Security Network (AFSUN) found that nearly 70% of African urban poor households take some of their food needs from traders and traders and 79% of these households use supermarkets. When this study considers frequencies, it is found that poor Africans use informal vendors more often for most of their needs and go to supermarkets to purchase large quantities of staples.
With economic growth contributing to the construction of supermarkets and other urban renewal practices, the land space is drawn from growing grazing communities and harvesting their own food and reducing the resources vendors use to achieve the products they sell, limiting their business practices and bringing food wastes in Africa. Modern food systems in cities and towns are beginning to change rapidly and destabilize existing food insecurity practices.
The results of the AFSUN survey show that various factors, such as gender, income, and education affect access to nutritious food. A male-headed household has greater access to food than a woman's head. This is due to the socio-political variety of women that does not affect modern, Western women who have more access to financial opportunities. In Africa, female household heads are twice as likely to be unsafe as food than men. Women have less mobility in Africa and thus rely more on the practice of less secure food sources.
South Africa
Transportation issues
Cities in Africa suffer from major fragmentation that causes poor people to use public transport for long trips, spending up to 3 hours a day on the way. With most of the day wasted on the way, poor Africans have less time to shop or prepare food that forces them to buy more expensive, less nutritious, and well-prepared foods from street vendors or restaurants. This split and mobility also caused many poor Africans to shop for groceries in places outside their village. A study in Soweto, Johannesburg in 2004 showed that most urban poor spend about 50% of their spending in places outside the city where they live.
Impact
The 1995 Revenue and Expenditure Survey conducted in South Africa assessed the urban food insecurity rate of 27 percent, relative to the rural rate of 62 percent. Subsequent studies such as the 1999 National Food Demography Survey and the South African Social Attendance Survey of 2008 independently assessed urban food insecurity rates at roughly half the village level.
A 2000 survey conducted in rural Eastern Cape, rural Western Cape and urban Cape Towns rated food insecurity to 83, 69, and 81 percent, respectively. This survey takes into account other African urban factors rather than the distribution of market retailers such as supermarkets to include the population's tendency to use informal formal food sources such as agriculture and local markets.
Maps Food deserts by country
Australia
In Western Australia, the scarcity of high-quality, affordable fruits and vegetables in remote areas is identified as one of the factors that limit consumption along with seasonal produce. A review of 2014 found that less populous and very remote areas had fewer grocery stores and higher prices for fruits, vegetables and dairy than in cities. Of these stores, 20% generally do not supply products that meet all quality standards with some exceptions, unlike urban areas with the exception of lettuce and green beans in Perth. Geographical data were not analyzed for the prevalence of low-income populations to define the area as food deserts.
The five-year campaign to improve access to healthy food began in 1990 and is headed by the Department of Health in Western Australia and industry groups have mixed success. The department then developed a new private/public partnership to address the access and consumption of fruits and vegetables. The 2008 audit found some progress as a result of providing fruit and vegetable access incentives, but there was no progress in identifying and addressing any supply issues in development planning or explaining the cost, quality and access issues for remote, rural and urban areas.
Europe
"European (non-English) food access research also often highlights the problem of poverty in relation to accessing a healthy diet." French research has noted that low-income consumers have a tendency to reach more affordable items such as high-calorie foods (ie cereals, candies, and additional fats) than single nutrient-rich food sources.
United Kingdom
English food deserts can be broadly classified into twelve geographic types, based on the social-economic factors of physical access to store interactions, access to finance (affordability) of healthy foods, and attitudes toward healthy food consumption, the desire to consume them rather than fast food convenience, possession of cooking skills, that is, psychological access. These twelve types of environments are 1) the city's executive flat area (the lifestyle is too fast for healthy cooking), 2) the inside of the ethnic minority area (food costs vs low wages), 3) the inner city cut off by the streets (4) decreased suburban areas (closed stores, poor physical access to supermarkets), 5) planned housing areas of local authorities (low income, and shops often lacking fresh produce), 6 ) student residential areas (preferences for fast food outlets, less demand for fresh produce), 7) Rich suburbs, mostly shopping by car, but some retirees who do not own a car. Area 8-12 is a rural food desert. 8) is a small market town center that loses trade to supermarkets out of town, leaving cars without easy access, 9) suburban markets, bad bus service to the center maybe 1 or 2 miles (2 - 3 kilometers) far, 10), the city - smaller rural towns, do not have much fresh produce, 11) remote villages, no shops, and less serviced by mobile shops, 12) disperse settlements, no focal point for shopping.
Furey et al. describes the creation of food deserts as being "the high competition of big chain supermarkets has created a vacuum".
North America
United States
Implications
The food desert is defined by the shortage of supermarkets and other stores that provide affordable healthy food. Audit studies show that supermarkets are the most effective way to supply communities with a wide selection of healthy and fresh foods relatively affordable. In addition, they are usually open year-round, provide hours of convenient operation and generally receive food stamps from the Additional Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and the Nutrition Supplement Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC). Small-scale food markets and full services can play a role in improving people's food security.
Affordability
Compared with residents in high-income environments, low socioeconomic status (SES) individuals tend to have higher food in meat and processed foods and lower fruit and vegetable intake. They are more likely to buy cheap fats and sugar with fresh fruits and vegetables that cost more per calorie. On average, the most energy-dense foods cost only $ 1.76 per 1,000 calories, compared to $ 18.16 per 1,000 calories for low-energy nutritious meals. This is one of the reasons cited why low-income and minority populations are more likely to suffer from obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Earnings can play a big role in determining family eating habits in food deserts. Those affected by food deserts are usually poor, with an average income of between $ 5,000 and $ 20,000 per year. Interestingly, according to the USDA, "Research that considers prices paid for the same food at all levels of household income indicates that while some very poor households - those earning less than $ 8,000 per year - can pay between 0.5 percent up to 1.3 percent more for their groceries than slightly more households, households earning between $ 8,000 and $ 30,000 tend to pay the lowest prices for groceries, whereas high-income households pay a higher price significant. "
Chain supermarkets benefit from economies of scale to offer low prices to consumers, but are less common in low-income urban areas. In the United States, the number of supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods is about 30% lower than in the highest income environments. In cities, three times as many supermarkets are in richer environments than poorer ones. "Economies of scale, ie when a store's operating costs decrease as store size increases, and the scope economy, which when costs decrease with increasing products, suggests that larger stores offering greater variation can do so and offer more prices low. "The two factors could explain the ability of larger stores to survive easier than smaller stores." A 2008 book notes that 22% of supermarket chains in Minneapolis are located in downtown compared to more than 50% of shops non-chain. In the end, a 1990 US government report found that people in urban areas pay 3 to 37 percent more for the same food in the local area than in suburban supermarkets.
In the absence of other food outlets, residents in low-income urban areas are often "forced to rely on small shops with limited food choices at much higher prices". Retail food retailers have the market power to raise prices (about 30-60%) of the limited product choices that are dominated by processed foods. The study found "retail prices for similar foods are higher in areas of deprivation" that have scarcity of supermarkets and food stores. Findings from the USDA support that the price of similar items on average is higher in stores than in supermarkets. As a result, people from low SES end up spending up to 37% more on their food purchases.
Smaller communities have fewer choices in food retailers. Small traders of small traders are struggling to be profitable in part because of low sales figures, which makes it difficult to meet the minimum purchasing requirements of wholesale food suppliers. Lack of competition and sales volume can lead to higher food costs. For example, in New Mexico the same shopping cart that costs rural residents $ 85, the urban population costs only $ 55. However, this does not apply to all rural areas. A study in Iowa showed that traders in four rural districts have lower costs on the main meals that form a balanced nutritious diet than the large supermarkets outside this food wasteland (more than 20 miles away).
Grocery stores in low-income communities have less variation. Rural small traders and shops in areas where consumers are less interested in buying products will bring less fruit and vegetables because they are more expensive than processed foods, especially in food deserts. It deals with the problem of "swamp food", an area lacking healthy and nutritious food choices. Even when healthy food is available, they may be unaffordable for many residents in poorer communities. Higher prices on healthy foods than unhealthy ones potentially affect the level of obesity.
In a study of urban food environments, participants described the lack of supermarkets as "a practical barrier to the purchase of healthy food and a symbol of their social and economic environmental struggle".
Health results
There are dietary and health implications for those living in areas where nutritious food is not available; some claims, such as linking food wastes with obesity in children, are moot.
A summary report by The Colorado Health Foundation concluded that individuals with access to supermarkets tend to have healthier diets and lower risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes. Food disorders correlate with many poor health outcomes. Another study found a link between better access to supermarkets and lower risk of obesity. In addition, better access to department stores is associated with higher risk of obesity.
- The lack of plant foods (fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds) is correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
- Sweetened sweet drinks with sugar are associated with a higher risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
- Studies of dietary wastes and type 2 diabetes mellitus show that areas with limited access to nutritious food are associated with an increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes.
Studies show that food insecurity can have an impact on adult elderly health including lower BMI, limited activity and malnutrition. Elderly people without consistent access to adequate fruits and vegetables and appropriate nutrients are at greater risk for future health and illness problems.
A 2010 study correlated inverse distance from supermarkets and decreased availability of healthy foods with increased body mass index and risk of obesity. Among parents in particular, malnutrition caused by inadequate access to food can cause other health risks. For those suffering from weight loss and malnutrition, the risks include longer and longer hospitalizations, early entry into long-term care facilities, and overall increasing morbidity and mortality. Nutritional disorders with comorbidities are the ninth most common diagnostic category among elderly Medicare beneficiaries admitted to rural hospitals. Adult parents struggling with obesity and nutritional overweight associated with limited food choices are at risk of exacerbating existing chronic conditions, such as heart disease and diabetes, and increased functional decline.
While correlations have been found, causal pathways are complex and not fully understood. Much of the research on the food and health environment is cross-sectional and thus can not make a causal conclusion. Research improvements are needed before causal relationships can be defined explicitly.
Transport barriers to food access
According to a 2010 report from the USDA, about 29.7 million people (9.7% of the population) live in low-income areas more than 1 mile from supermarkets. Often the only place close to the population to buy food is a supermarket or corner store. A 2005 study using GIS determined that among the poorest neighborhoods in Detroit, African Americans are on average 1.1 miles farther from nearby supermarkets than white ones and 28% of the population does not own a car.
Urban areas usually have private and public transportation such as buses and trains available, but rural areas usually offer little or no public transportation even though the grocery store is far from home.
According to The Reinvestment Fund (TRF) and Low Supermarket Access areas (TRF 2012), the density of car ownership is much lower in poorer communities. Accessing healthy food then becomes more difficult without reliable transportation. The Food Access Research Atlas (ERS 2013) maps food access measurements in both low and high income communities. Below this measure, they show a significant number of cars inside and a number of supermarkets in the area.
So many people in low-income neighborhoods can spend more on transport to bring their groceries home. The Colorado Health Foundation finds that taxi drivers make more trips to grocery stores early in the month when food stamps are distributed and at the end of the month before they end. Fortunately, the availability of vehicles has increased over the last few decades has helped disadvantaged populations overcome economic barriers and food access barriers in rural and urban food deserts.
In 2007, the elderly comprised 7.5 million of the 50 million people living in rural America. The US Census website contains maps showing the percentage of people aged 65 and older. Of this elderly population, nearly half a million live in rural food deserts and unsafe food, while many more are at risk. A study by Sharkey et al. of seniors in the Brazos Valley show that 14% can not make their seasonal food supply run out, 13% can not eat a balanced diet and 8.3% have to make their food smaller or miss it.
Elders are mainly influenced by the distance barriers presented by rural food deserts. A survey by interest groups and insurance companies AARP reported that at age 75 and older, 83% of men and 60% of women are still driving, down from 93% and 84% respectively at age 65 and lower than 78% and 80 % of the next lowest group, 16-24 years. Lack of decent public transport services in rural areas can make it difficult for parents to shop. As a result, 9.6% is more likely that the elders without cars living in the food desert will skip a banquet compared to those who have it. Due to lack of access to vehicles, older people are more likely to rely on them in their community to get food.
Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities
The health gap associated with access and food consumption is associated with housing segregation, low income, and environmental expropriation. Morland et al. found that an area with a majority of department stores had a higher prevalence of overweight and obese individuals compared to areas with only supermarkets. The lack of adequate food sources and limited transportation available to low income communities can contribute to malnutrition.
Research has documented differences in supermarket access between urban poor and non-poor. Baker et al. found that mixed race areas were significantly less likely to have access to foods following a healthy diet compared to a predominantly white, high-income area. The study by Mari Gallagher found African-Americans farther away from healthy foods than other racial groups. Supermarkets in the African American neighborhood are only 52% common as in white environments. In addition, a review of food frequency data in the Atherosclerosis Risk Study in the Community showed that the dominant white population had a supermarket five times more than the non-white predominant environment. African Americans living in the same census tract as supermarket access are more likely to meet dietary guidelines for fruit and vegetable consumption. Each additional supermarket increases the intake of fruit and vegetables by 32%.
A 2010 study analyzed data from the Centers for Disease Control and the US Department of Health and Human Services to assess the health outcomes of women who participated in the SNAP and the Provisional Needs Assistance for Families program. This study critically assesses the current structure of social welfare policy, but notes that 25% of food stamp participants have no easy access to supermarkets.
A 2008 report states that in a metropolitan area of ​​Chicago, the African-American neighborhood does not have an independent self-service network and unlike the Hispanic community, although there is no full service chain. However, between 2005-2007, more discount stores moved to the African-American community. Hispanic communities in the food wasteland have targeted the Hispanic food market.
Proposed solution
Transport Initiatives
The USDA released an extensive report to Congress in 2009 as a request to reform the Food, Conservation and Energy Act 2008. A study recommendation to address the problem of access in food wastes includes the above options as well as transportation reforms. If there is insufficient supply of vehicles, better public transport in rural food deserts or promoting safe cycling and cycling environments in urban areas can help. Proposed solutions include utilizing a combination of public and private resources. Current transit assistance and existing food provision programs in many communities, such as Meals on Wheels, have initiatives focused on providing people with limited mobility and the ability to shop at traditional food retailers.
Entering supermarket and grocery store numbers
State and local governments implement public-private partnerships that use a combination of community-level funding and intervention initiatives to target areas with lower access to healthy food. The progenitor program is the Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative, a public-private partnership started in 2004 with state seed funds. The success of the initiative has led to the creation of similar programs in at least seven states and cities, such as the New York City Retail Food Expansion Program to Support Health (SEGAR). In early 2010 the Obama administration launched a related Healthy Food Financing Initiative.
The University has coordinated with business leaders and local communities to solve the problem of food scarcity. In 2008, La Salle University and The Fresh Grocer worked together to open a grocery store in Germantown, Philadelphia. The Germantown neighborhood has been in the wilderness for decades, but thanks to the coordination between the two companies, Fresh Grocer is able to provide more than 250 jobs for the Philadelphians and provide healthy food.
Community/family help
Families often work together and develop sharing networks to exchange clothing, provide childcare, sell personal possessions, and share transportation and even housing resources. People living in the food desert often use this approach to feed their families.
Foodsheds
Foodhed planning is an integral part of policy not only for New York, but also other cities like Chicago, Toronto and Cincinnati. The New York City Regional Food Initiative in New York City 2010 aims to analyze local food production capacities in the Metropolitan Region as part of a strategy to increase the availability of affordable and healthy food in all environments. Some projects increase the availability of healthy affordable foods by building community-managed markets, farmers' markets, groceries or grocery stores, and urban agriculture projects.
Farmers markets
Some food movements suggest that local food grown in farmers' markets is superior to the usual in supermarkets. However, these markets are often too expensive for budget awareness. Government programs such as SNAP and WIC often partner with non-profit organizations that subsidize low-income individuals to buy products from farmers' markets.
In the Bertie County countryside, the poorest region of North Carolina, members of the community along with high school classes designed and built a pavilion to house local farmers' markets.
Community garden
Community involvement and the incorporation of local organizations and volunteers can improve the effectiveness of food safety nets and alternative solutions such as community gardens (eg, , see Urban farming in West Oakland).
Internet store
Internet delivery options overcome barriers of distance in the food desert with online cutlery and shopping services for fresh food from retailers and food cooperatives.
State and federal agencies in New York set up a program to allow the recipients of the optional food vouchers to buy healthy food online for home delivery. In autumn 2016, this pilot program was launched in conjunction with an established food delivery company, FreshDirect, for two postal codes in the Bronx. The hope is that online food delivery can eliminate desert food.
Education
Research shows that desert food is not the real problem, eating habits. Indeed, one study found that 89.3% of people in a community were "very interested" or "interested" in education to prepare healthier food choices. Various ways to improve education and counseling on diet and health by the federal government include SNAP Education (SNAP-Ed) and the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP).
See also
References
Further reading
- An annotated literary bibliography on the food environment
- Desert food in Richmond, CA
- Food justice
- Open Source Food
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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